{"id":1953,"date":"2023-08-16T20:52:37","date_gmt":"2023-08-16T20:52:37","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/aurorasaurudev.wpengine.com\/?page_id=1953"},"modified":"2026-07-28T20:53:14","modified_gmt":"2026-07-28T20:53:14","slug":"aurora-topics","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?page_id=1953","title":{"rendered":"Aurora 101"},"content":{"rendered":"<h1>Aurora 101<\/h1>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">by the Aurorasaurus Team<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The entries below are beginner-level starting points to explore complex subjects, so there are links in each for finding out more. B<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">e sure to also check out the growing <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/sunearth\/the-heliopedia\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><b>Heliopedia<\/b><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">! For an intermediate-level list of definitions, visit the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.swpc.noaa.gov\/content\/space-weather-glossary\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SWPC Space Weather Glossary<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. It\u2019s also important to note that while Aurorasaurus is writing from the context of Western science, there are many ways of knowing about the aurora. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><center><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/pb0WlrkcOak\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/center><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0A film from the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) about how some of Alaska&#8217;s Indigenous people describe and experience the powerful Northern Lights. UAF also has educational materials on its <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/culturalconnections.gi.alaska.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cultural Connections website<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, including a poster series that translates scientific aurora terms into different languages. To find out more about common aurora questions, visit the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/aurorasaurus.org\/learn\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Learn section<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of the Aurorasaurus site.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><strong>Let\u2019s get started with some basic terms used by aurora chasers and citizen scientists. <\/strong><\/h2>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1563\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1563\" style=\"width: 237px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/3.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1563\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/3.png\" alt=\"A man stands in snow taking a photo of aurora\" width=\"237\" height=\"201\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1563\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo by Hugo Sanchez of himself, as he chases and photographs auroras<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><strong>Aurora chaser:<\/strong> A person who loves to watch the Northern or Southern Lights. They like to stay up late at night, find a safe place with a good view of the sky, and watch the aurora. Sometimes they drive long distances to find good places to watch the Northern or Southern Lights. Some aurora chasers are skilled at photographing the aurora. They capture beautiful and scientifically useful photos!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1564\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1564\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/4.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1564\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/4.png\" alt=\"Aurora, STEVE, and stars light the sky and reflect in water\" width=\"250\" height=\"195\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1564\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Aurora, STEVE, and the Milky Way, photo by Krista Trinder<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Astrophotography<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: the practice of taking pictures of the night sky, including auroras. Chasers also talk about taking pictures of the stars when no auroras are visible. Even without a fancy digital camera, adults or students accompanied by adults can still take part! Check out this free <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov\/SMBooks\/AstrophotographyV1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">smartphone astrophotography guide<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from NASA.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" style=\"-webkit-user-drag: none;\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/2.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1562\" style=\"-webkit-user-drag: none; display: inline-block; margin-bottom: -1ex;\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/2.png\" alt=\"Two men watch aurora\" width=\"250\" height=\"204\" \/><\/a><br \/>\nCitizen scientists and Aurorasaurus Ambassadors Vincent Ledvina and Andy Witteman chasing auroras in Alaska. Photo by Vincent Ledvina<\/td>\n<td><b>Citizen science<\/b>:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/science.nasa.gov\/citizenscience\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NASA\u2019s citizen science projects<\/a>\u00a0are collaborations between scientists and interested members of the public. Through these collaborations, volunteers (known as citizen scientists) have helped make thousands of important scientific discoveries.\u00a0The term \u201ccitizen science\u201d is in the process of changing\u00a0and we are interested in its evolution to something more inclusive. For example, one misconception about citizen science is that you have to be a citizen to participate\u2014anyone can take part! As that conversation is actively underway, we will use NASA\u2019s term for this post.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1561\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1561\" style=\"width: 251px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/1.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1561\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/1.jpeg\" alt=\"Two smiling women hold a poster between them\" width=\"251\" height=\"167\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1561\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Aurorasaurus project manager Laura and founder Dr. Liz hold a conference poster by Aurorasaurus Ambassador Michael Hunnekuhl<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Aurorasaurus: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A collaborative science <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/linktr.ee\/aurorasaurus\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">project<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that maps the aurora in real-time using volunteer reports. This helps scientists with aurora data, and helps the public see whether and where the aurora is shining in real time. The project has made a number of discoveries, including that social media is effective for detecting large natural events; that crowdsourcing the verification of citizen science data works; and that space weather alerts are more accurate when combined with citizen science data. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>Aurora chasers tell us that one of the things they love most is that each aurora is different. <\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>To make this wide variety easier to study, scientists classify the Lights into different types. Here are some basic categories\u2014but there are many more types!<\/b><\/span><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1596\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1596\" style=\"width: 251px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/diffuse-glow-2.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1596\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/diffuse-glow-2.png\" alt=\"A red glow lights the sky\" width=\"251\" height=\"163\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1596\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Diffuse aurora, photo by Larry Koehn, from <a href=\"https:\/\/spaceweather.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">spaceweather.com<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Diffuse aurora<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: these <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.aurorasaurus.org\/learn#common-shapes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">usually have<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> little motion, are quite dim, and might even be confused with clouds. (But if you can see stars through the glow, then it is likely an aurora, not a cloud.) They can be green, whitish, or blood red and spread over a wide area, typically closer to the equator than the \u201cdiscrete\u201d auroras described below. Diffuse red glows can be visible <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/topics\/solarsystem\/features\/halloween_storms.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">at great distances<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> because they are so high in altitude.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1597\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1597\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/discrete-arcs-2.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1597\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/discrete-arcs-2.jpeg\" alt=\"A green swirling aurora lights the sky\" width=\"250\" height=\"162\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1597\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Discrete aurora, photo by Senior Airman Joshua Strong, courtesy of United States Air Force, CC-NC-SA<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Discrete aurora<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Discrete auroras are bright thin bands \u2014 most common pictures of auroras are of this type. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">They <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.aurorasaurus.org\/learn#common-shapes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">typically<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> have a definite lower border and can stretch high into the sky, like curtains, when viewed from the side. From below they are very narrow. They can wave slowly or race across the sky, particularly on the part closest to the Earth\u2019s nearest pole. They are broadest, brightest, and\/or most active around midnight local time! We ask about types of aurora on our <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/aurorasaurus.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">collaborative science report form<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, because each is caused by a different process.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1566\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1566\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/6.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1566\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/6.gif\" alt=\"An animated gif shows pulsating aurroa\" width=\"250\" height=\"141\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1566\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pulsating aurora, photo by Poul Jenssen<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Pulsating aurora<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: diffuse auroras can have <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.aurorasaurus.org\/learn#common-shapes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">pulsating patches<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> which occur on the equatorward side of the <\/span><b><a href=\"#oval\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">auroral oval<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and turn on and off every few seconds. Video photography may be best for seeing them. They also have irregular shapes that reappear. They are quite dim and usually occur late in the night\/early in the morning, after the main arcs have subsided. Some of what causes these unique shapes is unknown.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1567\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1567\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/7.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1567\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/7.png\" alt=\"STEVE curves up from the horizon like a feather in the sky\" width=\"250\" height=\"225\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1567\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">STEVE, photo by Vincent Ledvina<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Subauroral phenomena:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> these occur closer to the Earth\u2019s equator than regular diffuse or discrete auroras and are more rarely studied; however, new cameras are aiding in documenting them. <\/span><b><a href=\"#steve\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">STEVE<\/a> <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">is an example of one type, and <\/span><b><a href=\"&quot;#proton\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">proton aurora<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is another. Keep reading to find out more about both!<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1610\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1610\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Screen-Shot-2021-09-21-at-10.20.40-AM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1610\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Screen-Shot-2021-09-21-at-10.20.40-AM.png\" alt=\"A hand holds a pendant with coiled wire and beads\" width=\"250\" height=\"312\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1610\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pendant inspired by the science behind proton aurora science! Images of proton auroras are surprisingly difficult to come by<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"proton\"><\/a><b>Proton aurora<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: a rare kind of aurora that is usually extremely dim to the human eye. Aurora chasers originally thought the mysterious <\/span><b><a href=\"&quot;#steve\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">STEVE<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> might be some kind of proton aurora, but the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=449\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">differences<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> between what they saw and proton aurora caught the interest of aurora scientists and led to research and discoveries.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1568\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1568\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/8.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1568\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/8.png\" alt=\"A clear STEVE lights the sky against the Milky Way\" width=\"250\" height=\"167\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1568\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">STEVE, photo by Catalin Tapardel<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"steve\"><\/a><b>STEVE:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> a <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/image-feature\/the-aurora-named-steve\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">purplish arc<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> with green stripy features that runs east to west and appears closer to the equator than regular aurora. The name \u201cSTEVE\u201d stands for \u201cStrong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement.\u201d While this phenomenon has been observed for centuries by both laypeople and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=891\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">scientists<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, in 2018 a team of citizen scientists and scientists <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/feature\/goddard\/2018\/mystery-of-purple-lights-in-sky-solved-with-help-from-citizen-scientists\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">published<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the first scientific paper on it. Collaborations involving citizen scientists are still discovering <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/feature\/goddard\/2020\/citizen-scientists-help-discover-a-new-feature-of-steve\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">new things<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">!<\/span><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/wRHwGD-is9U\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A NASA video that describes the story of STEVE.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>We are often asked, \u201cHow can I see the aurora?\u201d <\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>In order to answer this question, let\u2019s dive deeper into some of the science behind the Lights.\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1579\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1579\" style=\"width: 900px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Anatomy-Poster.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1579\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Anatomy-Poster.png\" alt=\"A diagram labels the Sun, the boundary of the Earth's magnetic field, the Earth, auroras around the north and south poles, and the tail of the Earth's magnetic field\" width=\"900\" height=\"342\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1579\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This diagram with artwork by Hannah Foss illustrates some of the spaces and phenomena that connect the Sun and Earth. It was created by the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.gi.alaska.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute<\/a>. They and traditional knowledge holders are working together to translate an \u201cAnatomy of the Aurora\u201d version of the poster into multiple languages. You can download it in two dialects of I\u00f1upiaq from their <a href=\"https:\/\/culturalconnections.gi.alaska.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cultural Connections website<\/a>. Western science is a newcomer to the observation of the aurora, and we recommend exploring these resources created by traditional knowledge holders.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>Space is not empty! <\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>In our solar system, it is a soup of dancing plasma, carried by the solar wind.<\/b><\/span><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1570\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1570\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/10.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1570\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/10.png\" alt=\"A stream of plasma jets out of the Sun\" width=\"250\" height=\"175\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1570\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/hinode\/solar_017.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Plasma of the Sun<\/a>, image by Hinode&#8217;s Solar Optical Telescope, Jan. 12, 2007<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"plasma\"><\/a><b>Plasma<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: the fourth state of matter. When a gas is superheated, its atoms split apart into electrons (negatively charged) and \u201cions\u201d (positively charged). The charged particles move on their own, dancing to magnetic fields in space. Some people call plasma \u201cionized gas.\u201d While in our daily lives we might encounter it in fire, lightning, or electric sparks, it actually makes up the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/science.nasa.gov\/science-news\/science-at-nasa\/1999\/ast07sep99_1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">vast majority<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of the universe. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mediacast\/plasma-plasma-everywhere\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Click here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to listen to a podcast interview about plasmas in the universe with plasma physicist Dr. Doug Rowland!<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1572\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1572\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/12.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1572\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/12.gif\" alt=\"solar wind streams toward the left of the gif like rapid mist\" width=\"250\" height=\"141\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1572\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">GIF excerpt from highly-processed STEREO spacecraft data of the normally-invisible solar wind. Data credit: Craig DeForest, SwRI. <a href=\"https:\/\/svs.gsfc.nasa.gov\/12329\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NASA\u2019s Goddard Space Flight Center<\/a> visualization<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"solarwind\"><\/a>Solar wind<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: a <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/solarsystem.nasa.gov\/resources\/2288\/the-solar-wind-across-our-solar-system\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">gusty stream of material<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that flows from the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/sunearth\/the-heliopedia\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Sun<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> in all directions, all the time, carrying the Sun\u2019s <a href=\"#Bz\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">magnetic field<\/a> out into space. While it is much less dense than wind on Earth, it is much faster, typically blowing at speeds of one to two million miles per hour. The <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=twB62NYsaIg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">solar wind<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is made of charged particles \u2014 electrons and ionized atoms \u2014 that interact with one another and the Sun\u2019s magnetic field. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/twB62NYsaIg\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\nSolar wind particles interacting with the Earth\u2019s magnetic field are a major driver of aurora.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Pro tip: You might see the solar wind\u2019s magnetic field called the \u201cinterplanetary magnetic field\u201d or \u201cIMF\u201d for short.\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=173\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Click here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to explore an Aurorasaurus blog post and check out this <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">solar wind sea shanty<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">!<\/span><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/LP3qzKGh1AM\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>The Earth is surrounded by a magnetic bubble called the magnetosphere.<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>It\u00a0exists inside a larger magnetic bubble called the heliosphere. This in turn is formed by the flowing \u201cinterstellar medium\u201d of outer space. <\/b><\/span><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1571\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1571\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/11.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1571\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/11.png\" alt=\"The Sun, tiny and sparkling in the center, is surrounded by illustrated shells representing parts of the heliosphere protecting from interstellar radiation\" width=\"250\" height=\"174\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1571\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Still illustration of the heliosphere with the Sun sparkling in the center, from a NASA video<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"heliosphere\"><\/a><b>Heliosphere: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the space environment that originates in the Sun and surrounds the solar system. Made up of the flowing solar wind, which ultimately travels past all the planets to three times the distance to Pluto, the heliosphere is defined by the furthest reaches of the Sun\u2019s magnetic field in space. The heliosphere is filled with radiation as well as magnetic fields that trail all the way back to the Sun. The heliosphere itself acts as a giant shield for the solar system, protecting the planets from radiation coming from the rest of space. The NASA <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Voyager 1<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Voyager 2<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> spacecraft flew to the edge of the heliosphere and beyond\u2014<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/voyager.jpl.nasa.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">click here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to follow their ongoing adventures!<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1410\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1410\" style=\"width: 251px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/unnamed.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1410\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/unnamed.jpeg\" alt=\"A hand opens the 3D Printed Magnetosphere Model, revealing the internal structures\" width=\"251\" height=\"179\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1410\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">3D printed magnetosphere <a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=1389\">model<\/a> created by Aurorasaurus, NASA\u2019s STEAM Innovation Lab and NASA\u2019s Magnetosphere Multiscale Mission (MMS)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"magnetosphere\"><\/a>Magnetosphere: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the Earth has a magnetic field, or \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/science.nasa.gov\/heliophysics\/focus-areas\/magnetosphere-ionosphere\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">magnetosphere<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">,\u201d with a north and south pole, kind of like a bar magnet or \u201cdipole.\u201d Solar wind plasma blows from the Sun and squishes the sunward side of our magnetic field. The plasma stretches the side farther away from the Sun into a long \u201cmagnetotail.\u201d The magnetosphere\u2019s outer boundary is where the solar wind meets the Earth\u2019s magnetic field. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=1389\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Click here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to explore an Aurorasaurus blog post about a 3D printed model of the magnetosphere, and find out more about how scientists study the magnetosphere <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/mms.rice.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1574\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1574\" style=\"width: 251px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/14.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1574\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/14.png\" alt=\"A woman gives a space weather forecast\" width=\"251\" height=\"143\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1574\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Still of space weather forecaster Tamitha Skov, \u201cThe Space Weather Woman,\u201d from her website<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Space Weather: <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">there is weather on Earth, and there is weather in space. Instead of clouds, rain, or snow, it&#8217;s <\/span><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the way the space around Earth is always changing as the Sun sends energy, matter, and magnetic fields toward our planet. Scientists study and forecast these ever-changing conditions in the solar system. While the Earth\u2019s magnetic field mostly protects the planet, some space weather can interfere with satellites and other technology. NOAA\u2019s <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.swpc.noaa.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Space Weather Prediction Center<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (SWPC, pronounced \u201cSWIP-see\u201d) tracks space weather and issues alerts for a number of different customers. Some of these are <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/spaceweather.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">relevant<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> for Aurora chasers. Other agencies also employ <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">space weather forecasters<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. For people who are interested in graphs and charts, a list of scientific space weather resources is available <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/soho.nascom.nasa.gov\/spaceweather\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">here<\/span><\/a>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>The terms \u201csolar storm\u201d and \u201cgeomagnetic storm\u201d are often used to mean the same thing. <\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>However, solar storms are shorter releases of matter, magnetism, and energy from the Sun, while geomagnetic storms are their longer-lasting effects on Earth. Not all solar storms hit Earth or cause geomagnetic storms.\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1575\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1575\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/15.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1575\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/15.png\" alt=\"The Sun sneezes a mass of plasma at the Earth's magnetosphere\" width=\"250\" height=\"125\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1575\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist&#8217;s <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/sunearth\/news\/storms-on-sun.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">illustration<\/a> of material from the Sun headed toward the Earth\u2019s magnetosphere. Created by NASA<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Solar storms<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: eruptions of mass and energy from the solar surface. These launch hot plasma and magnetic fields out from areas near the surface of the Sun into the solar system. Sometimes these particles make it all the way to the Earth and beyond by flowing along the Sun&#8217;s magnetic field.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1592\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1592\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed345.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1592\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed345.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration shows a large area of intensity near Antarctica. \" width=\"250\" height=\"187\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1592\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This <a href=\"https:\/\/svs.gsfc.nasa.gov\/2857\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">visualization<\/a> of a 2003 geomagnetic storm affecting the South Pole is from the Polar spacecraft with \u201cfalse-color\u201d data overlaid using colors that represent auroral intensity. Red marks the highest intensity, blue the lowest. NASA\/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"geomagnetic\"><\/a><b>Geomagnetic storm:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> when a large space weather event<\/span>\u00a0<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">arrives at Earth, it <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/sunearth\/spaceweather\/index.html#q7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">pushes and wobbles<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the <\/span><b><a href=\"#magnetosphere\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">magnetosphere<\/a> <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">more than usual. If the magnetic field arriving from the Sun is directed southward, it interacts strongly with the northward-facing magnetic field of the Earth (see <\/span><b><a href=\"#Bz\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Bz<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). The Earth&#8217;s magnetic field is then peeled open like an onion, allowing energetic solar wind particles to stream down and hit the atmosphere over the poles. Geomagnetic storms can be measured by instruments on the Earth\u2019s surface. There is a very small decrease in magnetic field strength that lasts about six to twelve hours, after which the magnetic field gradually recovers over a period of several days. Click <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.swpc.noaa.gov\/phenomena\/geomagnetic-storms\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> for more info about geomagnetic storms from the Space Weather Prediction Center, which monitors them.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><strong>The Sun drives solar storms. <\/strong><strong><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Sometimes\u2014but<\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"> not always\u2014a solar flare can herald the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=sg3NAdOYp8Q\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">launch of a CME<\/a> <span style=\"color: #000000;\">toward Earth. <\/span><\/strong><\/h2>\n<p><strong><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Solar flares can be seen by scientific instruments, but we can\u2019t always tell if a CME is on the way to Earth, so we have to wait until it reaches a place where our satellites can detect it and the direction of its magnetic field (called <a href=\"#Bz\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Bz<\/a>). Forecasting CME arrival times is by its nature difficult to do with high accuracy. Until an hour or so before a geomagnetic storm, there can be plus or minus 12 hours of uncertainty for when the CME will arrive\u2014a whole day in total!\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1589\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1589\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1589\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed.gif\" alt=\"Animated gif of the Sun sneezing a large volume of matter off the right hand side\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1589\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The European Space Agency\/NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory captured this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/content\/cme-to-pass-earth-messenger-and-juno\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">imagery<\/a> of a coronal mass ejection as it left the sun in the direction of Earth and Mercury on July 16, 2013. Image by ESA&amp;NASA\/SOHO<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"cme\"><\/a><b>Coronal mass ejection (CME)<\/b><sfpan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: a <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/spaceplace.nasa.gov\/solar-activity\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">huge bubble<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of radiation and particles from the Sun that explodes into space at very high speed when the Sun\u2019s magnetic field lines suddenly reorganize. When charged particles from a CME reach enter the <\/span><b><a href=\"#magnetosphere\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">magnetosphere<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, they can trigger auroras. CMEs drive the biggest solar storms, so they can be a higher threat for severe space weather. The largest incidents are rare, but scientists constantly monitor the Sun for such events. How large can CMEs be? <\/span><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/sg3NAdOYp8Q\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><br \/>\nV<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ideo about the journey of an extremely large CME that occurred in 2012!<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1590\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1590\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-18.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1590\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-18.png\" alt=\"An image of the Sun with a large white sparkle-shaped flare\" width=\"250\" height=\"241\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1590\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Image of a very large solar flare on the Sun <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/sunearth\/news\/News021411-xclass.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">taken<\/a> by NASA&#8217;s Solar Dynamics Observatory on February 15, 2011. Much of the vertical line in the image is caused by the bright flash saturating the SDO sensor. Credit: NASA\/SDO<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Solar flare<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: the way magnetic fields on the Sun move and change can sometimes cause a sudden explosion of energy called a \u201c<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/spaceplace.nasa.gov\/solar-activity\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">solar flare<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d that releases large amounts of radiation into space. In scientific imaging of the Sun through special filters, it looks like a bright flash of light. If a solar flare is very intense, the radiation it releases can interfere with radio communications on Earth. Solar flares do not cause auroras, but they can sometimes\u2014but not always\u2014be accompanied by <\/span><b><a href=\"cme\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CMEs<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that <em>can<\/em> cause auroras. <\/span><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/feature\/goddard\/2020\/nasa-sdo-sun-data-helps-new-model-predict-big-solar-flares\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Click here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to find out more about how scientists develop ways to predict solar flares.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>When particles arrive at Earth, they are caught and accelerated in the magnetosphere. <\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><b>They then stream down through the upper atmosphere near the North and South Poles, driving the aurora.<\/b><\/span><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1591\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1591\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-1.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1591\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-1.gif\" alt=\"An animated graphic says &quot;Welcome to the Ionosphere&quot; as it rises above Earth's surface to the edge of space\" width=\"250\" height=\"141\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1591\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Illustration from \u201cWelcome to the Ionosphere\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=kDCz5jBfJoc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">video<\/a> by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Ionosphere: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the Earth\u2019s <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/solarsystem.nasa.gov\/news\/1127\/10-things-to-know-about-the-ionosphere\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ionosphere<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is a layer of the atmosphere made up of charged particles, or <\/span><b><a href=\"#plasma\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">plasma<\/a>.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> It is the place in the upper atmosphere where auroras occur. It occurs between about 50 to 400 miles (80 to 640 kilometers) in altitude, far above clouds and planes. It overlaps the top of the regular (electrically neutral) atmosphere and the edge of space. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/kDCz5jBfJoc\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\u00a0<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Fun video about the ionosphere<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1588\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1588\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-17.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1588\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-17.png\" alt=\"Snowy pine trees frame an aurora-filled sky\" width=\"250\" height=\"312\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1588\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Aurora, photo by Vincent Ledvina<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Aurora<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: The <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/aurora\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">aurora<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is a display of light in the night sky\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">resulting from the raining down (precipitation) of electrons and protons from the magnetosphere into the Earth&#8217;s upper atmosphere. The aurora borealis and aurora australis \u2014 also called the Northern Lights and Southern Lights \u2014 occur at the Earth&#8217;s North and South Poles. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Solar wind particles funnel around to the long tail of the <\/span><b><a href=\"#magnetosphere\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">magnetosphere<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, where they become trapped. The particles are then accelerated toward Earth\u2019s poles, driven by a process called <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">magnetic reconnection:<\/span><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/e6fe6yiUTRY\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\u00a0<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">At the final step of the process in Earth\u2019s upper atmosphere, they bounce off of atoms and molecules, providing them with extra energy that is released as a burst of light. These interactions continue at lower and lower altitudes in the ionosphere until all the incoming energy is lost. When we see the glowing aurora, we are watching a billion individual collisions, lighting up the invisible magnetic field lines of Earth. Find out more about aurora science on the Aurorasaurus <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/aurorasaurus.org\/learn\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Learn page<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">blog<\/span><\/a><b>!<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1587\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1587\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-16.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1587\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-16.png\" alt=\"A map of North America has an intense auroral oval overlaid on it\" width=\"250\" height=\"180\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1587\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Image of the auroral oval in December 2015 by NOAA \/ NASA, retrieved by <em>Sky &amp; Telescope<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"oval\"><\/a><b>Auroral oval<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: because of the way the Earth\u2019s magnetic field is shaped, auroras occur in a <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">roughly oval shape<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> around the north and south magnetic poles. The ovals can expand toward the equator during strong <\/span><b><a href=\"#geomagnetic\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">geomagnetic storms<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, but usually sit at about 65-70 degrees latitude. The Earth rotates beneath the auroral ovals. In order to see auroras, you need to be underneath or close to the nearest auroral oval. Scientists created a forecasting tool and real-time model of the auroral oval called <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ngdc.noaa.gov\/stp\/ovation_prime\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">OVATION Prime<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1586\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1586\" style=\"width: 251px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-15.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1586\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-15.png\" alt=\"Green swirls of aurora grace the sky\" width=\"251\" height=\"183\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1586\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Active auroral substorm, photo by Donna Lach<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Substorm<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: a word for the daily, natural progression of auroras. They happen every few hours and take place at high latitudes in the auroral oval. Substorms are the natural results of the magnetosphere taking in, storing, and releasing energy. They were explored in the 1950\u2019s by <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/uaf.edu\/centennial\/uaf100\/akasofu.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dr. Syun-Ichi Akasofu<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of the University of Alaska Fairbanks, who figured out some of the ways that auroras behave across the world. These were later confirmed by images from satellites. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The peaks of substorms are the times that the aurora dances most brightly and at the lowest latitudes, but the timing of the peaks is very difficult to predict, and it is not forecast by SWPC!\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" id=\"Bz\"><\/a><br \/>\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1580\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1580\" style=\"width: 251px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/L1-reconnection-gif-merged.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1580\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/L1-reconnection-gif-merged.gif\" alt=\"A Bz south magnetic field reconnects with the Earth's\" width=\"251\" height=\"162\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1580\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Diagram of a solar wind Bz south magnetic field reconnecting with the Earth\u2019s Bz north magnetic field. Adapted from clip in COMET Met Ed Aurora Science lesson.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Bz<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: an important term for aurora chasing. Magnetic fields, which physicists call &#8220;<\/span><b>B<\/b>&#8220;,<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0are carried through the <\/span><b><a href=\"#heliosphere\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">heliosphere<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> by the <\/span><b><a href=\"#solarwind\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">solar wind<\/a><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and are constantly changing direction and strength. The most important direction to aurora chasers is \u201cBz\u201d (the part of B parallel to the Earth&#8217;s poles) because of the way it interacts with the Earth\u2019s magnetic field.<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There is a special location between the Earth and the Sun (close to the Earth) called <\/span><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/solarsystem.nasa.gov\/resources\/754\/what-is-a-lagrange-point\/\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">L1<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/fTVN19h4nMg\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\u00a0<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are two\u00a0<b><a href=\"spaceweather\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">space weather<\/a><\/b> satellites there called DSCOVR and ACE, which measure the <b><a href=\"#solarwind\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">interplanetary magnetic field<\/a><\/b>, solar wind velocity, and other things. From this location, it takes the solar wind about an hour to reach Earth so information from DSCOVR and ACE is especially helpful for aurora chasers. <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">At L1 a coordinate system is used in which \u201cpositive Bz\u201d (also called \u201cBz north\u201d) is in the same direction as the Earth\u2019s magnetic field.\u00a0<\/span><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why does this matter? Just like with magnets, opposites attract and the same polarity pushes apart. If incoming solar wind has a \u201cBz north\u201d or \u201cpositive Bz\u201d orientation\u2014the same as the Earth\u2019s\u2014it is mostly pushed away by the planet\u2019s magnetic field. If the solar wind near Earth has a \u201cBz south\u201d magnetic orientation, also called \u201cnegative Bz,\u201d it is the opposite of the Earth\u2019s magnetic field. That makes it more likely to connect with the Earth\u2019s magnetic field and drive processes that can cause aurora.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In other words, for aurora chasing, Bz south is a good thing! There are more details in our <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=1257\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">blog post<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> on Bz.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1585\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1585\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-14.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1585\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-14.png\" alt=\"An illustrated fox watches an illustrated aurora, with different levels of intensity on a toggle at the bottom\" width=\"250\" height=\"164\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1585\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Still from <a href=\"https:\/\/kpfox.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">KpFox<\/a> showing an artistic take on moderate, Kp5 conditions. KpFox was created by Aurorasaurus Ambassador Jeremy Kuzub<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Kp Index<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: a worldwide scale of disturbances in the Earth\u2019s magnetic field.\u00a0 It uses numbers from 1-9 where 1 is very weak and 9 is very very strong. It is based on measurements of the Earth\u2019s magnetic field from Earth at certain latitudes where geomagnetic storms cause changes. Higher numbers mean stronger activity, by a factor of 10. Since the Kp Index applies to the entire planet, it helps predict the presence of auroras on Earth, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">but<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> can\u2019t tell you if auroras will show up in any specific location. You can find out more in our <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=1304\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">blog post<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, and explore a visualization on the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/kpfox.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kp Fox<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> site by Aurorasaurus Ambassador Jeremy Kuzub. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.gfz-potsdam.de\/en\/kp-index\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Click here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to explore the official Kp Index website!<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_1584\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1584\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-13.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-1584\" src=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/unnamed-13.png\" alt=\"A graph shows highs and lows over time\" width=\"250\" height=\"135\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1584\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Solar Wind Power chart on Aurorasaurus.org<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td>\n<td><b>Solar Wind Power<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: a <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=184\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">measurement<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of the strength of the <\/span><b>solar wind<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, based on real-time measurements from the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.swpc.noaa.gov\/products\/ace-real-time-solar-wind\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ACE satellite<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which sits between the Earth and the Sun and provides about an hour\u2019s notice of activity. Like Kp Index, Solar Wind Power applies to the entire Earth. So while it can\u2019t predict whether the aurora will show up at your location, the plot is color-coded to tell you what the levels may mean for your latitude. Solar wind power also is calculated more frequently than Kp, and takes into account the varying effects of Bz and solar wind speed on driving aurora.<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You can see the current Solar Wind Power on the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/aurorasaurus.org\/storm-tracker\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Aurorasaurus website<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A similar estimate is \u201chemispheric power,\u201d the power of the aurora in either the northern or southern hemisphere, measured in gigawatts (GW). It is measured by the OVATION Prime aurora model and is a good estimate for how strong the aurora is overall: higher values of hemispheric power or \u201chem pow\u201d correspond with higher chances of seeing aurora.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Because of all these things, the question \u201cwhen can an aurora chaser see the aurora?\u201d turns out to be surprisingly complicated.<\/strong> The short answer is: there\u2019s no way to know for sure, so the goal for aurora chasers is to be in the right place at the right time, with fingers crossed! They can use estimates like the Kp Index and Solar Wind Power about an hour ahead of time to see if space weather and Bz might be good. They can then find a location under the auroral oval with a good view toward the nearest pole and clear, dark sky. They&#8217;ll keep an eye on Aurorasaurus and aurora chasing groups to see if others are seeing the aurora.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Even when everything looks good, aurora chasing requires luck\u2014and the aurora can also put on a surprise show when the science doesn\u2019t look promising. The uncertainty is part of the sport and fun of chasing the aurora.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">I hope these help you start to explore the amazing science of auroras! There are many more resources to explore on the Aurorasaurus<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">blog<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. If you ever join a trusted adult for aurora chasing, we hope you have a safe, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?p=1436\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">well-prepared<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, and wonderful time!<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Aurora 101 by the Aurorasaurus Team The entries below are beginner-level starting points to explore complex subjects, so there are links in each for finding out more. Be sure to also check out the growing Heliopedia! For an intermediate-level list of definitions, visit the SWPC Space Weather Glossary. It\u2019s also important to note that while&hellip;&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/?page_id=1953\" rel=\"bookmark\">Read More &raquo;<span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Aurora 101<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"rop_custom_images_group":[],"rop_custom_messages_group":[],"rop_publish_now":"initial","rop_publish_now_accounts":[],"rop_publish_now_history":[],"rop_publish_now_status":"pending","neve_meta_sidebar":"","neve_meta_container":"","neve_meta_enable_content_width":"off","neve_meta_content_width":100,"neve_meta_title_alignment":"","neve_meta_author_avatar":"","neve_post_elements_order":"","neve_meta_disable_header":"","neve_meta_disable_footer":"","neve_meta_disable_title":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1953","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1953","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=1953"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1953\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2519,"href":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1953\/revisions\/2519"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blog.aurorasaurus.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=1953"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}